Ancient Roman Papyrus Discovery Reveals New Insights into Near East Legal History

In a stunning revelation, scholars from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the University of Vienna, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem have uncovered a rare ancient papyrus from the Israel Antiquities Authority’s archives, shedding unprecedented light on Roman legal proceedings and daily life in the Near East.

Published in the prestigious journal Tyche, their research unveils how the Roman Empire cracked down on financial crimes—specifically tax fraud involving slaves—within the volatile provinces of Iudaea and Arabia. This extraordinary document provides a remarkably direct glimpse into Roman legal practices during an era marked by upheaval, as two massive Jewish revolts shook the foundations of imperial rule.

The longest Greek papyrus ever found in the Judaean Desert, comprising over 133 lines of text, has now been published for the first time. Initially misclassified as Nabataean, the papyrus remained unnoticed for decades until its rediscovery in 2014 by Prof. Hannah Cotton Paltiel, emerita of the Hebrew University.

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Recognizing the document’s extraordinary length, complex style, and potential ties to Roman legal proceedings, Prof. Cotton Paltiel assembled an international team to decipher it. The team, including Dr. Anna Dolganov of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Prof. Fritz Mitthof of the University of Vienna and Dr. Avner Ecker of Hebrew University, determined the document to be prosecutors’ notes for a trial before Roman officials on the eve of the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE), including a rapidly drafted transcript of the judicial hearing itself. The language is vibrant and direct, with one prosecutor advising another on the strength of various pieces of evidence and strategizing to anticipate objections.

The papyrus unveils a dramatic tale of forgery, tax evasion, and deceit in the Roman provinces of Iudaea and Arabia—territories that now encompass modern Israel and Jordan. At the heart of the scandal are Gadalias and Saulos, accused of orchestrating an elaborate scheme to evade Roman taxes through the fraudulent sale and manumission of slaves.

Gadalias, the son of a notary and possibly a Roman citizen, had a notorious criminal past riddled with violence, extortion, counterfeiting, and even inciting rebellion. His accomplice, Saulos, masterminded the scheme, selling and freeing slaves on paper while sidestepping the empire’s strict tax laws. To cover their tracks, the pair resorted to forgery—a crime that carried severe penalties under Roman law, including hard labor or even execution. “Forgery and tax fraud were not taken lightly in the Roman world,” explains Dr. Dolganov.

This high-stakes case unfolded in the turbulent years between two massive Jewish uprisings against Rome—the Jewish Diaspora Revolt (115–117 CE) and the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132–136 CE). Adding to the intrigue, the text suggests that Gadalias and Saulos may have been involved in subversive activities during Emperor Hadrian’s visit to the region (129/130 CE). It even names Tineius Rufus, the Roman governor of Iudaea at the onset of the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Given the era’s heightened tensions, Roman authorities likely viewed their crimes as part of a broader conspiracy against imperial rule.

“Whether they were truly rebels remains an open question, but the mere suggestion reflects the era’s charged atmosphere,” notes Dr. Dolganov. Yet the nature of their scheme raises further mysteries. As Dr. Ecker points out, “freeing slaves is hardly a lucrative business.” Were the enslaved individuals victims of illicit trafficking, or did the case connect to the Jewish duty to redeem enslaved kin? The answers remain elusive, but this remarkable document offers a rare, intimate glimpse into the dark underbelly of Roman law and the simmering unrest of the time.